Emperor Valerian’s capture at the Battle of Edessa marked a dark chapter in Roman history, as he became the first Roman emperor to be captured in battle.
The humiliation he endured at the hands of Shapur I, being used as a human footstool, symbolized the catastrophic defeat suffered by Rome.
His subsequent fate remains shrouded in mystery, with diverse accounts portraying both brutal and relatively humane treatment.
The intrigue surrounding Valerian’s captivity continues to captivate historians, leaving one to wonder what lay behind the Persian emperor’s motivations and the true nature of this remarkable event.
Capture at the Battle of Edessa
In the summer of 260 AD, Emperor Valerian, trying to secure a surrender, led a peace delegation to Shapur’s camp, but instead, he and his senior staff were captured by the Persian forces, marking a turning point in the disastrous Battle of Edessa. This humiliating defeat at Edessa was a catastrophic event for Rome, as Valerian became the first Roman emperor to be taken captive in battle.
The events leading to the capture began when Valerian’s army, numbering 70,000 strong, initially made significant progress in the eastern Roman territories at Edessa, which is now in southeastern Turkey near the Syrian border. However, the prolonged siege and the outbreak of plague among the legionaries greatly weakened the Roman position.
Valerian’s decision to negotiate with Shapur ultimately led to his capture, emboldening Shapur to continue his raids deeper into the Roman Empire.
Life Before Captivity
Emperor Valerian, born Publius Licinius Valerianus, played a significant role in Roman politics long before his captivity.
As a member of an old Roman senatorial family from Etruria, Valerian had a distinguished lineage. Little is known about his early life, but he married Ignatia Mariniana and had two sons, Gallienus and Valerianus Minor.
During the reign of Severus Alexander, Valerian was consul and later became a key figure in persuading the Senate to support Gordian III in the First Roman-Persian War.
Valerian set up a system dividing the empire between himself and his son Gallienus, which provided stability despite numerous incursions and usurpations. His prosecutions of Christians, however, have soured his memory. Despite his competence, his capture and humiliation at the hands of the Persians marked a significant low point in the history of the Roman Empire.
The Dark Reign of Shapur I
Valerian’s misfortunate fall from power began with his ill-advised attempt to buy peace with Shapur I following the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Edessa. Shapur I, already known for his military prowess, showed little interest in a settled peace, demanding instead that Valerian come to him personally. This demand was a diplomatic trap, as Valerian was seized by Shapur’s forces upon arrival.
The extreme measures that Valerian endured as a prisoner have become infamous in historical accounts. According to early Christian author Lactantius, Valerian was used as a human footstool whenever Shapur mounted his horse. This humiliating treatment was only the beginning.
Valerian allegedly made a futile attempt to ransom his release, but Shapur had other plans. The Persian king was said to have forced Valerian to swallow molten gold before skinning him and preserving his flayed skin as a grotesque trophy in the main Persian temple.
While the details of Valerian’s final days are fraught with controversy among historians, it’s clear that Shapur I’s treatment of the Roman emperor was unrelenting and brutal, reflecting the dark and merciless nature of his reign.
Diverse Accounts of Captivity
Different accounts offer divergent details about Valerian’s life and death in captivity.
The early Christian writer Lactantius described Valerian’s humiliation, claiming he was used as a human footstool by Shapur I when mounting his horse. According to Lactantius, Valerian offered a ransom for his release but was instead forced to swallow molten gold and subsequently executed, with his stuffed and preserved skin displayed in a Persian temple.
Other sources suggest a different narrative. The scholar Touraj Daryaee believes Shapur I treated Valerian relatively well in the city of Bishapur, where he was later released after the construction of Band-e Kaisar, a Roman-engineered dam near Susa, and other developmental projects. Persian rock carvings at Naghshe-Rostam show Valerian holding hands with Shapur I, symbolizing submission.
Historical records often disagree, reflecting biases and conflicting agendas. Valerian’s fate remains a subject of debate, with no definitive conclusion.
The Lasting Impact
Did the capture and execution of Valerian in 260 CE, the first Roman emperor to fall prisoner in battle, have a lasting impact on the Roman Empire?
Indeed, the unique circumstances of Valerian’s demise sent shockwaves throughout the empire, instilling a sense of instability among its people. The inability of the empire to protect its own emperor raised questions about its military power and efficiency.
The aftermath of Valerian’s death further complicated the already strained relations with the Persian Empire, deepening the distrust and animosity between the two powers.
Valerian’s failure to quell the Persian threat and his subsequent capture weakened the Roman Empire’s grip on its territories. The empire’s fragmentation, which began with Valerian’s division of power between himself and his son Gallienus, accelerated following his capture. Internal conflicts and external threats from various tribes and states capitalized on the empire’s vulnerability.
The memory of Valerian’s fate would serve as a cautionary tale for subsequent emperors, emphasizing the importance of maintaining strong military power and strategic alliances to ensure the empire’s survival.
Artistic Depictions of Defeat
The monumental stone carvings on Naghshe-Rostam in Persia vividly depicted Valerian’s submission to Shapur I, a portrayal of the humiliating defeat of a Roman emperor. The carvings portrayed Valerian holding hands with Shapur I, a clear visual representation of surrender. This artistry not only documented the historical event but also left a lasting testimony to the immense power of the Sasanian Empire.
The art of this period was deeply tied to politics, often used to commemorate significant victories. The defeat of Valerian served as a potent symbol of the Persian Empire’s military prowess, reinforcing the dominance of Shapur I. This visual narrative was pivotal in conveying the magnitude of the event, ensuring its memory was etched in history.
The historical narrative of this defeat, coupled with the graphic depictions in stone, encapsulated the crushing blow dealt to the Roman Empire and the ignominious fate of Valerian. The imagery served both as a warning to future adversaries and a celebration of the Persian triumph.
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